(26.1)
26. ANTIMATTER AND THE ANNIHILATION OF MATTER
AND ANTIMATTER DO NOT EXIST
The discovery of the positron in 1933 was followed by the opening of
a peculiar and extremely interesting field in physics, the field of antimatter.
It was a big surprise, both for physicists and astronomers, philosophers
and all those who deal with the question of the origin and composition
of the material world.
When the positron was discovered it was established that it had the
same mass as an electron and that its charge was of the same magnitude
as an electron, but of the opposite sign, which is why it got the name
of positron.
Proof that the positron is antimatter and that it, as such, annihilates
in contact with matter was experimentally obtained immediately following
its discovery. Even at that early stage it was established that positrons
disappeared very shortly after their appearance, and that from the place
of the disappearance two gamma rays of the same energy of 0.511 MeV were
emitted. Since that energy equal the product of an electron mass (or positron)
and the speed of light squared, it was concluded that the positron was
antimatter and therefore its contact with an electron brings about their
destruction - annihilation. In that process their masses disappear by being
transformed into the energy of radiation, as predicted by famous equation
|
(26.1) |
Thus the existence of not only antimatter and annihilation of matter
and antimatter were confirmed, but also the correctness of the claim that
matter changes into energy according to the Eq. (26.1).
Later other particles of antimatter were discovered, and the natural
symmetry, that for every particle of matter there is a particle of antimatter,
was confirmed.
Nevertheless, despite everything said above, a detailed analysis of
the interaction of positron and electron, puts the claim about the existence
of their annihilation as well as the claim that the positron is antimatter
into doubt. We will now attempt to put this assertion to the proof.
To develop that proof it is necessary to establish the energy of the
magnetic field which electrons and positrons, as electrically charged particles,
generate with their motion. At the same time, we need to establish an electron's
radius dependent on its speed of motion and particularly at the moment
of their collision. Afterwards, using Coulomb's law, we need to determine
the kinetic energy of an electron and positron at the moment of their collision.
By comparing the amount of magnetic and kinetic energy with the energy
of gamma rays emitted from their collision, we come to the demanded proof
that the radiation energy originates from the kinetic energy, that there
is no annihilation and that the positron is not antimatter.
26.1 The energy of a magnetic field and the radius
of an electron in motion
This calculation is true for the positron too, because the energy of
a moving electron's magnetic field equals the energy of the magnetic field
of a positron moving at the same speed.
If we consider that an electron has a spherical shape then its radius
is easiest to calculate by using the equation for the electrostatic energy
of an electron. Such a calculation is most often found in expert publications.
However, it does not give an electron's radius depending on the speed of
its motion. To calculate the radius of an electron dependent on the speed
of its motion we should use the equation for the energy of magnetic field,
which the electron, as an electrically charged particle, generates with
its motion. That calculation was given by Lorentz in his Electromagnetic
theory, and after him Robert A. Millikan [17], and we use it here, with
minor alteration.
The energy 
of magnetic field per unit volume is given by
 |
(26.2) |
The strength of the magnetic field 
at the distance 
from the electrical charge in motion
in the charge plane is 
, where 
is the electrical charge, and 
is its speed. Besides, the strength
of the magnetic field at a point at the distance 
from the electrical
charge, where 
is the angle between
and the motion direction, is given by
 |
(26.3) |
From there it follows that the total energy of the magnetic field, created by the effect of the electrical charge in motion is
 |
(26.4) |
where 
is an element of volume, and the integration is extended
all over space. However, by expressing it with ,
, and 
, we have
 |
(26.5) |
Therefore, the total energy is
 |
(26.6) |
Since the kinetic energy is 
, then the radius of the sphere of
an electrical charge in motion is found by putting
 |
(26.7) |
and from there
 |
(26.8) |
This is true while is small in comparison to the speed of light.
Lorentz, and then Millikan found that an electron's radius, at speeds
considerably lower than the speed of light equals 1.9·10-15 m. By using more
precise, later determined, values for the mass and electrical charge of
an electron we get that at speeds considerably lower than the speed of
light, an electron's radius is
 |
When an electron is moving faster, the classical expression for kinetic
energy in the Eq. (26.7) cannot be used, since with the increase
of speed the magnetic field created by its motion is increased, and that
is manifested as an increase in the electron's mass. Because of that we
should use a formula for kinetic energy which takes into account an increase
of an electron's mass with its speed in the Eq. (26.7)
 |
(26.9) |
Combining Eq. (26.9) with (26.7) and by solving for a gives
 |
(26.10) |
By using the Eq. (26.10) the values for an electron's radius depending
on its speed are calculated and given in the Table 26.1.
As can be seen from the table an electron's radius is reduced with the
increase of speed. However, it should be stressed that the reduction is
not according to the equation 
, given by Lorentz. With the increase
of speed the disagreement grows. For the sake of comparison, the table
also gives the values of radius calculated according to Lorentz's given
equation.
Table 26.1
 |
 |
 |
The radius of an electron is most precisely calculated and given for
the case of the moment of the collision with the positron when
its speed is 
. At that speed an electron's
radius is 0.70448507·10-15 m, and the energy of its magnetic field,
according to Eq. (26.9), equals the energy of its allegedly annihilation.
At the same speed and radius, a positron also creates a magnetic field
of the same energy. From this it can be seen that the energy of two gamma
rays 0.511 MeV each, emitted at the moment of a positron and electron collision,
originates from the energy of the magnetic, or to be more precise, the
electromagnetic fields of the electron and the positron, and not from their
annihilation. This is one proof that there is no annihilation when electron
and positron collide. In further text we will give another proof, based on the well
known Coulomb's law.
26.2 The kinetic energy of electron and positron at the
moment of their collision
Considering that an electron and positron have, quantitatively, the
same electrical charge, but of the opposite sign, that means that a force
of attraction operates between them according to Coulomb's law
 |
(26.11) |
where is the distance of the centers of the spheres of
electron and positron.
The work done by the force of attraction on the road to the collision
is transformed into the energy of motion, that is the kinetic energy of
each of them. In the course of that process, before the collision the electron
and positron cover half of the mutual distance , therefore the kinetic
energy of the electron, and also of the positron, is given by
 |
(26.12) |
where 
is the distance of the centers of spheres of electron
and positron at the moment of the collision, that is 
.
To prove that the kinetic energy of electron and positron, at the moment
of their collision, changes into radiant energy, in the form of two gamma
rays, we need to prove that the collision occurs when the energy reaches
the value of 
= 0.511 MeV = 8.18710414·10-14 J
and that then the distance of
the centers of the spheres of electron and positron equals the sum of the
radiuses of these spheres. Therefore, taking that
 |
(26.13) |
we find that
 |
So, as is shown, the required distance ,
at which the kinetic energies equal ,
is the distance at which the collision occurs, that
is it equals the sum of the radiuses of electron and positron. The size
of that radius 
was calculated earlier by using the equation for the energy
of the magnetic field and the condition that the energy equals .
So the second way of calculation, based on the well known Coulomb's
law, confirms that electron and positron, at the moment of collision, posses
kinetic energies which equal , and which transform into the energy
of the two gamma rays which modern physics claims that it is the product of the
annihilation of electron and positron.
If annihilation really occurred then the energy of radiation would
have to be two times larger than the well known energy
= 2·0.511 MeV,
which has been proved by experiment many times.
If, despite of the above given proofs, there were those who still
claimed that annihilation of electron and positron really occurred, then they would
be under the obligation to explain what happened to the kinetic energies
of the two particles at the moment of their collision and alleged disappearance
through annihilation.
In connection to this it is worth reminding ourselves that an electron's
kinetic energy is also transformed into radiation in case of braking radiation
(bremsstrahlung), or with the very well known X-ray radiation (Röntgen
radiation). For example, for the realization of X-ray radiation an electron
is accelerated up to a certain speed with the help of high electrical voltage.
Hence, electrical energy is put in so that electrons can achieve a certain
speed, and together with it a certain kinetic energy. When the electron
hits the anode, its kinetic energy changes into X-ray radiation. The
energy of X-rays thus produced is proportional to the kinetic energy
of electrons before they hit the anode.
Bearing in mind the well known fact that energy can neither be destroyed
or disappear without trace, then we are compelled to conclude that the
kinetic energies of electrons and positrons changed only their form of
existence, that is they changed into the energy of gamma radiation. And
since the energies of these gamma rays originates from the kinetic energies
then we are also compelled to conclude that annihilation does not exist
at all, at least as far as allegedly the best known and studied case of annihilation
in physics - the annihilation of electron and positron, which is commonly
accepted as a main proof that matter allegedly changes into energy, and also that
antimatter allegedly exists.
26.3 The positron is not antimatter
The coincidence that the kinetic energy of an electron and a positron
at the moment of their collision equals exactly, has deluded
physicists into accepting the annihilation of electron and positron,
resulting in the belief that the positron, as well as other later discovered
particle, belong to that new and fictional category in physics, antimatter.
Thus, with the discovery of the positron the existence of antimatter seemed
to be confirmed.
Physicists believe that the positron, as antimatter, cannot survive
in the presence of matter, and so, the argument goes, that is why it does
not exist in nature. That claim is based on the fact that the positron
after its appearance quickly disappears with the earlier described phenomenon
of radiation from the place of disappearance.
However, it has been known for a long time that the atomic nucleus
of some elements emit positrons. So, for example, in 1934 Irene Curie and
her husband Pierre discovered that boron, magnesium and aluminum emit positrons
after the bombardment of the same elements with alpha particles. Then in
the case of boron it was established that the time of the radioactive half-decay
in such radiation is 14 minutes. In this case positrons come from the atomic
nucleus which is a confusing fact. If the positron is antimatter then its
annihilation would have to occur in the atom's nucleus, which is an extremely
dense concentration of matter. Because of that it should be impossible
for a particle of antimatter to issue from an atomic nucleus. Nevertheless,
it does occur.
When we take into account everything said above, it turns out that
the positron, the earliest discovered and best known representative of
antimatter, is not antimatter at all and that as such, it does not annihilates
with matter. In other words, antimatter does not exist.
26.4 A new neutral particle - the ELPOTRIN
Under the influence of the special theory of relativity in modern physics
it is claimed that energy can change into matter, which is the reverse
process from the process of annihilation where the total matter of a particle
changes into energy. The main proof used for this is the appearance of
positron-electron pairs when matter is exposed to gamma rays whose energies
are equal to or grater than 1.022 MeV. This alleged transformation of energy
into matter is well known and confirmed many times by experiment. It is
interesting to note that the appearance of the pairs is possible only in
the presence of matter, and that it is not known what role matter plays
in that insufficiently studied physical process. It is also well known
that cosmic rays, whose energies can be up to 1020 eV, in collision with
atoms produce showers of positron-electron pairs. This phenomenon is also
claimed to be the result of the transformation of cosmic radiation energy
into matter or, to put it more precisely, into matter and antimatter.
The above claim is wrong, the appearance of positron-electron pairs
does not represent a transformation of energy into matter, there is no
creation of new particles, because these particles - pears originate from
the atomic nucleus. It is clear that in the process connected to this pair-appearance
a part of the energy of cosmic or gamma rays (whose energies are greater
than the binding energy of the elpotrin) causes an increase in the speed
of motion, and thus also an increase in the mass of electrons and positrons.
As was said earlier the increase in the electromagnetic mass of electrically
charged particles in motion is the result of the magnetic field being generated,
which resists further increase in the speed of particles. Hence, in the
process of the appearance of electron-positron pairs new particles are
not created on account of energy expenditure.
Electrons and positrons do not disappear in collision in the form of
radiation, but form a new, still unidentified, neutral particle whose mass
is double the mass of an electron. That new particle could be called an
ELPOTRIN, which is an abbreviation from electron and positron and resembles
the hypothetical particle neutrino. The elpotrin's binding energy is 1.022
MeV. Proof for this, and generally for the existence of the positron in
matter is the appearance of positron-electron pairs at the moment when
the matter is exposed to gamma rays whose energies are equal to or greater
than the elpotrin's binding energy.
In 1927 Pauli suggested that during a
-transformation another
particle is emitted at the same time as the -particle. He called
this hypothetical particle a neutrino. It has no charge and its mass is
insignificant making it invisible to existing methods of detection.
Allegedly certain confirmation of the existence of free neutrinos was
provided as late as 1953 in experiments conducted by F. Reines and C. Cowan.
It is claimed that, on that occasion, a huge flux of antineutrinos was
created in a powerful fission reactor which acted upon the protons in the
following way
 |
(26.14) |
The protons 
were bombarded
by antineutrinos 
and then they allegedly got neutrons
and positrons 
,
that is, protons, positrons, electrons and antineutrinos.
The interaction (26.14) must be taken with reserve, even though the
two scientists involved received the Nobel Prize for their proof of the
existence of the neutrino.
The first doubt about this proof of the existence of the neutrino arises
from the fact that there is, in fact, no concrete proof that antineutrinos
actually took part in the interaction, this is just a supposition.
The second doubt centres on the authenticity of the interaction bearing
in mind the laws on the conservation of the number of particles and electricity.
Two particles enter into given interaction; the antineutrino and the proton.
And four particles emerge from it: positron and neutron, which disintegrates
into a proton, electron and antineutrino whose presence has not been proved
either.
A far more realistic explanation of the experiment is based on the
bombardment of protons with elpotrins rather than antineutrinos. In this case the interaction
would be as follows
 |
(26.15) |
where 
is an elpotrin that consists of an electron
and a positron .
From interaction (26.15) we find that the experiment
mentioned proves the existence of the elpotrin but not the existence of
the neutrino.
26.5 The composition and nature of matter
The greater the energy of the gamma radiation to which matter is exposed,
the more complete is the fragmentation of the atomic nucleus and its parts,
and consequently the more numerous are the electron-positron pairs which
appear at that moment. This fact as well as the fact that only neutral
particles and those with a single charge (negative or positive) have been
discovered, lead us to the conclusion that all matter is composed of only
two basic particles. These are the particle with a negative electrical
charge, named the electron, and the particle with a positive electrical
charge, named the positron. All other stable and unstable particles are
a combination of those two. That again leads us to the conclusion that
in nature the number of electrons equals the number of positrons and in
that way symmetry and the equilibrium of electrical charge have been established.
Relatively to electrical charge one more thing should be noted. The total
kinetic energy of an electron, and a positron, calculated by using Coulomb's
law according to the Eq. (26.13), equals the energy of the magnetic field
generated by its motion.
If an electron had a mass, in the classical sense, then its total energy
of motion, calculated on the basis of Coulomb's law, would consist of the
kinetic energy of that mass in motion and the energy of the magnetic field
which it, as an electrically charged particle, generates with its motion.
However, it is surprising that an electron in motion does not posses, in
the classical sense, the kinetic energy of a mass in motion. Its total
kinetic energy consists only of the energy of its magnetic field. This
is also proved here by comparing the amount of energy of the magnetic field
and the kinetic energy of an electron when it collides with a positron.
In both cases they equal . On the basis of these facts for now only
one reasonable conclusion can be drawn, and that is the following. The
total mass of an electron and a positron, and matter in general, is of
electromagnetic nature.
However, if the electron has any mass at all, in the classical sense,
then its size is far less than its mass 
, which is said to be the
mass of an electron at rest, whereby it is forgotten that an electron is
never at rest, because it has its spin, which is known for certain. Also,
when talking about an electron, other kind of motion, such as, for example,
oscillatory motions, should not be excluded. In connection with that we need to know
that the masses of elementary particles inside an atom are less than the masses of these
particles when they are at rest outside of the atom. We have seen before that the mass,
or more exact said the inertia, of an electrically charged particle depends on a velocity
of motion of that particle. Having in mind these facts we can conclude that the realized
energy by nuclear fision and fussion originate from kinetic energy of the particles
of an atomic nucleus Accordingly, we can also conclude that the defect of the mass
of some atomic nucleus is, in fact, the defect of kinetic energy of the particles
of atomic nucleus.
In connection with the above said, we can summarize it in brief:
- There is no antimatter nor annihilation of positron and electron;
- The energy of gamma radiation, which appears at the moment of positron-electron
collision, originates from the kinetic energy of positron and electron;
- The positron does not disappear when it collides with an electron,
but instead, it forms with it a new, still unknown, neutral particle which
we have named the ELPOTRIN;
- The mass of the elpotrin is 1.8219·10-30 kg,
and the binding energy is 1.022 MeV;
- All matter is composed of only two basic particles, those being the
electron and the positron, and
- Mass and matter are totally of electromagnetic nature.
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